{"id":15233,"date":"2017-08-24T01:59:16","date_gmt":"2017-08-23T23:59:16","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/xoandelugo.org\/?p=15233\/"},"modified":"2017-08-24T16:20:20","modified_gmt":"2017-08-24T14:20:20","slug":"a-revolucion-industrial-e-a-teoria-austriaca-da-estructura-de-capital-cuarta-parte-oscar-rodriguez-carreiro","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/xoandelugo.org\/cy\/a-revolucion-industrial-e-a-teoria-austriaca-da-estructura-de-capital-cuarta-parte-oscar-rodriguez-carreiro\/","title":{"rendered":"A REVOLUCI\u00d3N INDUSTRIAL E A TEOR\u00cdA AUSTRIACA DA ESTRUCTURA DE CAPITAL. CUARTA PARTE &#8211; \u00d3scar Rodr\u00edguez Carreiro"},"content":{"rendered":"<div class=\"fusion-fullwidth fullwidth-box fusion-builder-row-1 fusion-flex-container nonhundred-percent-fullwidth non-hundred-percent-height-scrolling\" style=\"background-color: rgba(255,255,255,0);background-position: center center;background-repeat: no-repeat;border-width: 0px 0px 0px 0px;border-color:#e2e2e2;border-style:solid;\" ><div class=\"fusion-builder-row fusion-row fusion-flex-align-items-flex-start\" style=\"max-width:calc( 1200px + 0px );margin-left: calc(-0px \/ 2 );margin-right: calc(-0px \/ 2 );\"><div class=\"fusion-layout-column fusion_builder_column fusion-builder-column-0 fusion_builder_column_1_1 1_1 fusion-flex-column\"><div class=\"fusion-column-wrapper fusion-flex-justify-content-flex-start fusion-content-layout-column\" style=\"background-position:left top;background-repeat:no-repeat;-webkit-background-size:cover;-moz-background-size:cover;-o-background-size:cover;background-size:cover;padding: 0px 0px 0px 0px;\"><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-1\" style=\"transform:translate3d(0,0,0);\"><h1 style=\"text-align: center;\"><span style=\"color: #428fc9;\">A REVOLUCI\u00d3N INDUSTRIAL E A TEOR\u00cdA AUSTRIACA DA ESTRUCTURA DE CAPITAL. CUARTA PARTE.<\/span><\/h1>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-2\" style=\"transform:translate3d(0,0,0);\"><h4 style=\"text-align: right;\"><span style=\"color: #428fc9;\"><em>\u00a0 \u00a0 &#8211; \u00d3scar Rodr\u00edguez Carreiro &#8211; \u00a0\u00a0<\/em><\/span><\/h4>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"fusion-separator fusion-full-width-sep\" style=\"align-self: center;margin-left: auto;margin-right: auto;width:100%;\"><div class=\"fusion-separator-border sep-single sep-solid\" style=\"border-color:#ffe500;border-top-width:1px;\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><\/div><style type=\"text\/css\">.fusion-body .fusion-builder-column-0{width:100% !important;margin-top : 0px;margin-bottom : 20px;}.fusion-builder-column-0 > .fusion-column-wrapper {padding-top : 0px !important;padding-right : 0px !important;margin-right : 0px;padding-bottom : 0px !important;padding-left : 0px !important;margin-left : 0px;}@media only screen and (max-width:1024px) {.fusion-body .fusion-builder-column-0{width:100% !important;}.fusion-builder-column-0 > .fusion-column-wrapper {margin-right : 0px;margin-left : 0px;}}@media only screen and (max-width:640px) {.fusion-body .fusion-builder-column-0{width:100% !important;}.fusion-builder-column-0 > .fusion-column-wrapper {margin-right : 0px;margin-left : 0px;}}<\/style><div class=\"fusion-layout-column fusion_builder_column fusion-builder-column-1 fusion_builder_column_1_1 1_1 fusion-flex-column\"><div class=\"fusion-column-wrapper fusion-flex-justify-content-flex-start fusion-content-layout-column\" style=\"background-position:left top;background-repeat:no-repeat;-webkit-background-size:cover;-moz-background-size:cover;-o-background-size:cover;background-size:cover;padding: 0px 0px 0px 0px;\"><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-3\" style=\"transform:translate3d(0,0,0);\"><p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"color: #808080;\">\u00a0 Nos primeiros tres artigos desta serie comprobamos como a teor\u00eda austriaca da estrutura de capital perm\u00edtenos explicar satisfactoriamente o proceso econ\u00f3mico co\u00f1ecido co nome de Revoluci\u00f3n Industrial. As\u00ed, comprobamos que, tal e como explica a teor\u00eda, o proceso de crecemento econ\u00f3mico ingl\u00e9s debeuse ao alargamento da estrutura de produci\u00f3n permitido pola baixada da preferencia temporal e do aumento consiguiente do aforro, e que os empresarios tiveron un papel fundamental ao organizar a produci\u00f3n seguindo as directrices dos consumidores. O \u00faltimo elemento que estudaremos \u00e9 o do papel do Estado na Revoluci\u00f3n Industrial.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"color: #808080;\">\u00a0 A opini\u00f3n amplamente maioritaria \u00e9 que a Revoluci\u00f3n Industrial non foi o resultado dunha planificaci\u00f3n estatal manifestada nunha pol\u00edtica industrial premeditada, sen\u00f3n que foi un proceso espont\u00e1neo, suxeito \u00e1s forzas do libre mercado e non dirixido polo Estado. As\u00ed, tal e como di Phyllis Deane<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"color: #808080;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"color: #808080;\">A revoluci\u00f3n industrial brit\u00e1nica foi unha revoluci\u00f3n industrial espont\u00e1nea, non unha industrializaci\u00f3n forzada como foron algunhas das s\u00faas sucesoras. O seu desenvolvemento dependeu da resposta sen trabas da empresa privada \u00e1 oportunidade econ\u00f3mica.<a style=\"color: #808080;\" href=\"#_edn1\" name=\"_ednref1\">[i]<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"color: #808080;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"color: #808080;\">\u00a0 E segundo R. M. Hartwell<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"color: #808080;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"color: #808080;\">O \u201cparadoxo\u201d de Inglaterra segue producindo gran perplexidade aos partidarios da intervenci\u00f3n. A primeira Revoluci\u00f3n Industrial foi case enteiramente un fen\u00f3meno de mercado.<a style=\"color: #808080;\" href=\"#_edn2\" name=\"_ednref2\">[ii]<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"color: #808080;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"color: #808080;\">E en opini\u00f3n de Carlos Sabino<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"color: #808080;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"color: #808080;\">O proceso que seguiron os primeiros pa\u00edses que se industrializaron caracterizouse por ser espont\u00e1neo, non dirixido polo Estado.<a style=\"color: #808080;\" href=\"#_edn3\" name=\"_ednref3\">[iii]<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"color: #808080;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"color: #808080;\">\u00a0 Ning\u00fan dos elementos que analizamos ata agora (o aumento do aforro, o alargamento da estrutura de produci\u00f3n, a adopci\u00f3n de novos procesos produtivos, etc.) foi resultado da promoci\u00f3n estatal, directa ou indirecta. Por exemplo, o desenvolvemento tecnol\u00f3xico que se viviu nesta \u00e9poca en Inglaterra foi froito tam\u00e9n das forzas do mercado. Segundo Samuel Lilley<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"color: #808080;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"color: #808080;\">A demanda do mercado [\u2026] foi a causa principal das innovaci\u00f3ns tecnol\u00f3xicas do s\u00e9culo XVIII e principios do XIX.<a style=\"color: #808080;\" href=\"#_edn4\" name=\"_ednref4\">[iv]<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"color: #808080;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"color: #808080;\">\u00a0 E David Landes, di, en relaci\u00f3n a mellora dos transportes en Inglaterra<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"color: #808080;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"color: #808080;\">Outros pa\u00edses europeos estaban intentando facer o mesmo, pero en ning\u00fan sitio foron estas melloras tan amplas e efectivas como en Gran Breta\u00f1a. Por unha simple raz\u00f3n: en ning\u00fan outro sitio eran os cami\u00f1os e canles tipicamente o traballo da empresa privada, xa que logo respondendo \u00e1s necesidades (m\u00e1is que ao prestixio ou \u00e1s preocupaci\u00f3ns militares) e beneficioso para os usuarios.<a style=\"color: #808080;\" href=\"#_edn5\" name=\"_ednref5\">[v]<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"color: #808080;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"color: #808080;\">\u00a0 Os resultados da actividade estatal en relaci\u00f3n co xurdimento da Revoluci\u00f3n Industrial p\u00f3dense reducir a dous efectos: 1) non resultou prexudicial en todas aquelas medidas econ\u00f3micas nas que o Estado se mostrase incompetente \u00e1 hora de obrigar \u00e1 s\u00faa aplicaci\u00f3n e cumprimento, ou en canto refusou explicitamente intervir nas actividades econ\u00f3micas; 2) resultou prexudicial cando ocorreu o contrario. Nestes casos atrasou, impediu, ou fixo retroceder a acumulaci\u00f3n de capital.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"color: #808080;\">\u00a0 No primeiro caso, podemos mencionar o fracaso das pol\u00edticas mercantilistas \u00e1 hora de controlar a vida econ\u00f3mica en Inglaterra. As\u00ed, ao longo do s\u00e9culo XVII f\u00f3ronse oxidando e quedando sen efecto as regulaci\u00f3ns de salarios, emprego, adestramento t\u00e9cnico, localizaci\u00f3n industrial, prezos e comercio, establecidas polos Tudor e os Estuardo. Segundo Ashton, durante esa \u00e9poca crebouse a direcci\u00f3n central da econom\u00eda.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"color: #808080;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"color: #808080;\">Durante m\u00e1is de cen anos antes da Revoluci\u00f3n Industrial o Estado estaba en retirada do campo econ\u00f3mico.<a style=\"color: #808080;\" href=\"#_edn6\" name=\"_ednref6\">[vi]<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"color: #808080;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"color: #808080;\">\u00a0 Ademais da incompetencia estatal \u00e1 hora de impo\u00f1er as medidas mercantilistas, tam\u00e9n hai que destacar o triunfo do liberalismo na sociedade inglesa nos s\u00e9culos XVIII e XIX. Segundo Eli Heckscher, grazas \u00e1s ideas do liberalismo, especialmente a idea de que toda intervenci\u00f3n estatal \u00e9 prexudicial e a idea de que o individuo e non o Estado \u00e9 o centro da vida econ\u00f3mica, procedeuse \u00e1 obra de limpeza da lexislaci\u00f3n mercantilista. O principio de non intervenci\u00f3n conduciu \u00e1 negaci\u00f3n da inxerencia do Estado, o individualismo privou de base \u00e1 filosof\u00eda da raz\u00f3n de Estado.<a style=\"color: #808080;\" href=\"#_edn7\" name=\"_ednref7\">[vii]<\/a> A\u00ednda hab\u00eda elementos, como a Compa\u00f1\u00eda das Indias Orientais ou a Compa\u00f1\u00eda Cutlers de Hallamshire, que deb\u00edan a s\u00faa existencia aos poderes garantidos pola Coroa, e os campos do comercio exterior, a navegaci\u00f3n e as relaci\u00f3ns econ\u00f3micas imperiais estaban suxeitos \u00e1 interferencia estatal, pero notouse moito a influencia de escritores e publicistas como Adam Smith \u00e1 hora de limitar a intervenci\u00f3n estatal.<a style=\"color: #808080;\" href=\"#_edn8\" name=\"_ednref8\">[viii]<\/a> Cara a 1799, segundo Paul Mantoux<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"color: #808080;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"color: #808080;\">A pol\u00edtica intervencionista se desacreditaba cada vez m\u00e1is: o laissez-faire reinaba xa na maior\u00eda das industrias; a autoridade das corporaci\u00f3ns de artes\u00e1ns apenas si exist\u00eda xa, e o Estado refusaba exercer a s\u00faa.<a style=\"color: #808080;\" href=\"#_edn9\" name=\"_ednref9\">[ix]<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"color: #808080;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"color: #808080;\">\u00a0 No segundo caso, o dos efectos negativos da intervenci\u00f3n estatal, os efectos m\u00e1is perniciosos tiveron relaci\u00f3n cos episodios b\u00e9licos. Por exemplo, Ashton sinala os efectos da Guerra dos Sete Anos e da Guerra de Independencia americana<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"color: #808080;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"color: #808080;\">A guerra de 1756-63 resultou nun aumento dos prezos e o interese, unha ca\u00edda dos salarios reais, e unha sobre-estimulaci\u00f3n da construci\u00f3n naval e a manufactura do ferro [\u2026] Os oito anos que seguiron ao estalido da guerra cos americanos produciron unha seria ca\u00edda tanto das importaci\u00f3ns como das exportaci\u00f3ns [\u2026] Tam\u00e9n estiveron marcados por un alza no tipo de interese, e por un descenso do investimento interno.<a style=\"color: #808080;\" href=\"#_edn10\" name=\"_ednref10\">[x]<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"color: #808080;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"color: #808080;\">\u00a0 En canto \u00e1s guerras con Francia entre 1793 e 1815, Ashton afirma que<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"color: #808080;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"color: #808080;\">\u00a0Durante a guerra, o gran gasto gobernamental dunha natureza improdutiva produciu un alto nivel de emprego pero un baixo est\u00e1ndar de confort.<a style=\"color: #808080;\" href=\"#_edn11\" name=\"_ednref11\">[xi]<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"color: #808080;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"color: #808080;\">\u00a0 En relaci\u00f3n cos efectos econ\u00f3micos das guerras con Francia, Ashton distingue tres per\u00edodos: o da guerra, o per\u00edodo de posguerra e reaxuste e o per\u00edodo de expansi\u00f3n econ\u00f3mica. Durante a guerra o inxente gasto p\u00fablico improdutivo reduciu o benestar da poboaci\u00f3n; a dificultade de importar alimentos provocou o desenvolvemento de cultivos marxinais e aumentaron os ingresos dos agricultores e dos propietarios de parcelas; a escaseza de materiais de obra as\u00ed como as elevadas taxas de interese e os impostos sobre a propiedade frearon a construci\u00f3n de vivendas. Nesta \u00e9poca, o capital foi desviado de usos privados a usos p\u00fablicos e alg\u00fans dos desenvolvementos da Revoluci\u00f3n Industrial fre\u00e1ronse de novo. O gasto en soldados, munici\u00f3ns e uniformes estimulou a construci\u00f3n naval, a manufactura de ferro, cobre e produtos qu\u00edmicos e a algunhas ramas t\u00e9xtiles, pero a cambio de danar \u00e1s industrias do algod\u00f3n, de ferramentas, de cer\u00e1mica, etc.<a style=\"color: #808080;\" href=\"#_edn12\" name=\"_ednref12\">[xii]<\/a> No per\u00edodo de reaxuste os tipos de interese e o aluguer das casas mantiv\u00e9ronse. Ao mesmo tempo produc\u00edronse crebas bancarias, contraeuse o gasto p\u00fablico e houbo unha reticencia xeneralizada a investir a longo prazo. No terceiro per\u00edodo recuperouse a senda do progreso econ\u00f3mico: a volta ao patr\u00f3n ouro, a reforma do sistema fiscal, a reduci\u00f3n da d\u00e9beda nacional, o descenso do tipo de interese, o descenso dos alugueres, ca\u00edda dos prezos froito da reduci\u00f3n de custos, etc.<a style=\"color: #808080;\" href=\"#_edn13\" name=\"_ednref13\">[xiii]<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"color: #808080;\">\u00a0 Ademais das guerras, tam\u00e9n hai que destacar os efectos econ\u00f3micos negativos provocados pola realizaci\u00f3n de obras p\u00fablicas estatais, como as que se emprenderon na \u00e9poca dos anos 1780.<a style=\"color: #808080;\" href=\"#_edn14\" name=\"_ednref14\">[xiv]<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"#_ednref1\" name=\"_edn1\"><\/a><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"#_ednref1\" name=\"_edn1\"><\/a><\/p>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div><style type=\"text\/css\">.fusion-body .fusion-builder-column-1{width:100% !important;margin-top : 0px;margin-bottom : 20px;}.fusion-builder-column-1 > .fusion-column-wrapper {padding-top : 0px !important;padding-right : 0px !important;margin-right : 0px;padding-bottom : 0px !important;padding-left : 0px !important;margin-left : 0px;}@media only screen and (max-width:1024px) {.fusion-body .fusion-builder-column-1{width:100% !important;}.fusion-builder-column-1 > .fusion-column-wrapper {margin-right : 0px;margin-left : 0px;}}@media only screen and (max-width:640px) {.fusion-body .fusion-builder-column-1{width:100% !important;}.fusion-builder-column-1 > .fusion-column-wrapper {margin-right : 0px;margin-left : 0px;}}<\/style><div class=\"fusion-layout-column fusion_builder_column fusion-builder-column-2 fusion_builder_column_1_1 1_1 fusion-flex-column\"><div class=\"fusion-column-wrapper fusion-flex-justify-content-flex-start fusion-content-layout-column\" style=\"background-position:left top;background-repeat:no-repeat;-webkit-background-size:cover;-moz-background-size:cover;-o-background-size:cover;background-size:cover;padding: 0px 0px 0px 0px;\"><div class=\"fusion-separator fusion-full-width-sep\" style=\"align-self: center;margin-left: auto;margin-right: auto;width:100%;\"><div class=\"fusion-separator-border sep-double sep-solid\" style=\"border-color:#ffeb3b;border-top-width:1px;border-bottom-width:1px;\"><\/div><\/div><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-4\" style=\"transform:translate3d(0,0,0);\"><p><span style=\"color: #999999;\"><a style=\"color: #999999;\" href=\"#_ednref1\" name=\"_edn1\">[i]<\/a> \u201cThe British industrial revolution was a spontaneous industrial revolution, not a forced industrialization as some of its successors have been. Its development depended on the unfettered response of private enterprise to economic opportunity\u201d. Phillys Deane, <em>The First Industrial Revolution<\/em> (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979), p. 98.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #999999;\"><a style=\"color: #999999;\" href=\"#_ednref2\" name=\"_edn2\">[ii]<\/a> R. M. Hartwell, \u201cLa revoluci\u00f3n de los servicios: el crecimiento del sector servicios en la econom\u00eda moderna\u201d, pp. 371-409 en <em>Historia econ\u00f3mica de Europa. La Revoluci\u00f3n Industrial<\/em>, ed. Carlo M. Cipolla (Barcelona: Ariel, 1983), p. 390.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #999999;\"><a style=\"color: #999999;\" href=\"#_ednref3\" name=\"_edn3\">[iii]<\/a> Carlos Sabino, <em>Diccionario de econom\u00eda y finanzas<\/em> (Caracas: Panapo, 1991), p. 186.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #999999;\"><a style=\"color: #999999;\" href=\"#_ednref4\" name=\"_edn4\">[iv]<\/a> Samuel Lilley, \u201cEl progreso tecnol\u00f3gico y la Revoluci\u00f3n Industrial, 1700-1914\u201d, pp. 195-264 en <em>Historia econ\u00f3mica de Europa. La Revoluci\u00f3n Industrial<\/em>, ed. Carlo M. Cipolla (Barcelona: Ariel, 1983), p. 224.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #999999;\"><a style=\"color: #999999;\" href=\"#_ednref5\" name=\"_edn5\">[v]<\/a> \u201cOther European countries were trying to do the same, but nowhere were these improvements so widespread and effective as in Britain. For a simple reason: nowhere else were roads and canals typically the work of private enterprise, hence responsive to need (rather than to prestige and military concerns) and profitable to users.\u201d David Landes, <em>The Wealth and Poverty of Nations. Why Some are so Rich and Some so Poor<\/em> (Nueva York y Londres: W. W. Norton &amp; Co., 1998), p. 215.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #999999;\"><a style=\"color: #999999;\" href=\"#_ednref6\" name=\"_edn6\">[vi]<\/a> \u201cFor more than a hundred years before the Industrial Revolution the State was in retreat from the economic field\u201d. T. S. Ashton, <em>The Industrial Revolution, 1760-1830<\/em> (Londres: Oxford University Press, 1948), p. 138.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #999999;\"><a style=\"color: #999999;\" href=\"#_ednref7\" name=\"_edn7\">[vii]<\/a> Eli Heckscher, <em>La \u00e9poca mercantilista<\/em>, pp. 453-454.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #999999;\"><a style=\"color: #999999;\" href=\"#_ednref8\" name=\"_edn8\">[viii]<\/a> Ashton, <em>The Industrial Revolution<\/em>, p. 139.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #999999;\"><a style=\"color: #999999;\" href=\"#_ednref9\" name=\"_edn9\">[ix]<\/a> Paul Mantoux, <em>La revoluci\u00f3n industrial en el siglo XVIII<\/em> (Madrid: Aguilar, 1962), p. 443.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #999999;\"><a style=\"color: #999999;\" href=\"#_ednref10\" name=\"_edn10\">[x]<\/a> \u201cThe war of 1756-63 resulted in a rise of prices and interest, a fall of real wages, and an over-stimulation of shipbuilding and the manufacture of iron [\u2026] The eight years that follow the outbreak of war with the Americans brought a serious fall of both imports and exports [\u2026] They were marked also by a rise in the rate of interest, and by a decrease of investment at home\u201d. Ashton, <em>The Industrial Revolution<\/em>, p. 148.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #999999;\"><a style=\"color: #999999;\" href=\"#_ednref11\" name=\"_edn11\">[xi]<\/a> \u201cDuring the war heavy government expenditure of an unproductive nature produced a high level of employment but a low standard of comfort\u201d. T. S. Ashton, \u201cThe Standard of Life of the Workers in England, 1790-1830\u201d, en <em>Capitalism and Historians<\/em>, ed. F. A. Hayek (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1954), p. 129.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #999999;\"><a style=\"color: #999999;\" href=\"#_ednref12\" name=\"_edn12\">[xii]<\/a> Ashton, <em>The Industrial Revolution<\/em>, p. 150.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #999999;\"><a style=\"color: #999999;\" href=\"#_ednref13\" name=\"_edn13\">[xiii]<\/a> Ashton, \u201cThe Standard of Life of the Workers in England\u201d, pp.129-132.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #999999;\"><a style=\"color: #999999;\" href=\"#_ednref14\" name=\"_edn14\">[xiv]<\/a> Ashton, <em>The Industrial Revolution<\/em>, p. 148.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div><style type=\"text\/css\">.fusion-body .fusion-builder-column-2{width:100% !important;margin-top : 0px;margin-bottom : 20px;}.fusion-builder-column-2 > .fusion-column-wrapper {padding-top : 0px !important;padding-right : 0px !important;margin-right : 0px;padding-bottom : 0px !important;padding-left : 0px !important;margin-left : 0px;}@media only screen and (max-width:1024px) {.fusion-body .fusion-builder-column-2{width:100% !important;}.fusion-builder-column-2 > .fusion-column-wrapper {margin-right : 0px;margin-left : 0px;}}@media only screen and (max-width:640px) {.fusion-body .fusion-builder-column-2{width:100% !important;}.fusion-builder-column-2 > .fusion-column-wrapper {margin-right : 0px;margin-left : 0px;}}<\/style><\/div><style type=\"text\/css\">.fusion-body .fusion-flex-container.fusion-builder-row-1{ padding-top : 0px;margin-top : 0px;padding-right : 0px;padding-bottom : 0px;margin-bottom : 0px;padding-left : 0px;}<\/style><\/div>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[16],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-15233","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-artigos-cy"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/xoandelugo.org\/cy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/15233","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/xoandelugo.org\/cy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/xoandelugo.org\/cy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/xoandelugo.org\/cy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/xoandelugo.org\/cy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=15233"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/xoandelugo.org\/cy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/15233\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":15234,"href":"https:\/\/xoandelugo.org\/cy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/15233\/revisions\/15234"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/xoandelugo.org\/cy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=15233"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/xoandelugo.org\/cy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=15233"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/xoandelugo.org\/cy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=15233"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}